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The development of photopolymer 3D printing materials for biomedical applications requires the creation of a new class of polymer resins, that combine high strength, antibacterial activity, and low toxicity against eukaryotic cells. In this paper, a new material for 3D printing based on polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and tellurium nanoparticles (NPs) was developed. NPs Te were synthesized by laser ablation in water, transferred in acetone, and then included in a MMA solution. NPs concentrations Te were 0.001, 0.01, and 0.1% by volume. The introduction of Te NPs did not alter the energy required for polymerization or the mechanical properties of the finished polymer; however, it increased the degree of final polymerization as indicated by FTIR data. Additionally, it added significant bacteriostatic properties without increasing toxicity against eukaryotic cells. The mechanism of antibacterial action can be mediated through the induction of oxidative stress in bacteria (increased generation of 8-oxoGua and long-lived reactive forms of proteins in aqueous solutions). The severity of the antibacterial action is determined by the dose of the introduced NPs Te.

Acute limb ischemia (ALI) is characterized by a sudden reduction in arterial blood flow and may result in gangrene, systemic complications, and death. Urgent revascularization can be limb- and life-saving; however, it is associated with a risk of early postoperative complications. Both perioperative and intraoperative risk factors contribute to these outcomes and are influenced by the selected method of revascularization. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of intraoperative risk factors on postoperative outcomes according to the chosen treatment modality for acute limb ischemia, namely open or endovascular revascularization. Patients with Rutherford class II ALI from a single population were divided into two groups comparable in clinical and demographic characteristics: Group I – open surgical treatment (n = 50) and Group II – endovascular revascularization (n = 50). The influence of identified intraoperative risk factors on the development of complications differed between the two revascularization approaches. An operative time exceeding 85 minutes in the open surgery group (2.73) and exceeding 92 minutes in the endovascular group (1.52) was associated with an increased risk of adverse postoperative outcomes. The urgent nature of the procedure was also an independent predictor of adverse events in both groups, with ORs of 12.11 and 9.13 for Groups I and II, respectively. Outcomes of ALI treatment and the early postoperative course in the overall population depend on the selection of the revascularization method in accordance with each patient’s individual perioperative risk profile. Comparison of endovascular and open approaches demonstrated differences in outcomes favoring endovascular revascularization only in a specific subgroup of patients with a less severe functional class of limb ischemia.

Copy number variations (CNVs) are involved in eukaryotic genomes evolution. CNVs also the causes of multifactorial and monogenic diseases. Retroelements can be causes of CNVs emergence and evolution. Retroelements occupy 42.5% of the human genome and are located mainly in intergenic, intronic and regulatory regions. The mechanisms of CNVs formation are due to non-allelic homologous recombination between retroelements due to their distribution across all chromosomes and the presence of homologous sequences. Role of recombinations between retroelements as causes of neurofibromatosis type 1, Cowden syndrome, Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, Langer-Gideon syndrome, Fanconi anemia, amelogenesis imperfecta, and spastic paraplegia type 4 and other monogenic diseases is described. Mechanisms of CNVs formation using retroelements suggest the role for retroelements as causes of trinucleotide repeat expansion diseases. The influence of LINE1 in Huntington's chorea caused by CAG expansion is described. In fragile X syndrome, CGG expansion occurs in the FMR1 gene, which homologue in Drosophila is involved in retroelements inhibition. In humans, CGG-binding protein influence on Alu and LINE1 described. Role for Alu in GAA expansion identified in Friedreich's ataxia. These relationships suggest the possible retroelements role in triplet code development during the origin of life. At the human population level, the underlying mechanisms of evolution through the influence of retroelements are the cause of numerous diseases. However, in the wild, the same mechanisms serve as substrates for the natural selection of more adaptive traits and eukaryotes evolution.

Gamma-wave stimulation represents one of the most promising non-pharmacological approaches for enhancing cognitive function, which declines with aging and in neurodegenerative diseases. The aim of the present study was to identify optimal protocols for maximizing the effectiveness of gamma-wave stimulation. We investigated the effects of various combinations of physical and cognitive loads during visual gamma-wave stimulation at a frequency of 40 Hz using light of different wavelengths on the amplitude of gamma rhythms in the human brain. The effects were evaluated both at the level of individual EEG leads and across global brain electrical activity. The strongest response to visual gamma stimulation was observed in the occipital region. This effect exhibited a cumulative component, reflected by an increase in baseline activity at the stimulation frequency. The cumulative effect was most pronounced in the occipital and temporal regions. The magnitude of the gamma-stimulation response depended on the wavelength of the light stimulus and increased in the order of white, pink, and red. The most robust effect was observed with red-light stimulation combined with physical exercise. The influence of cognitive load was more prominent in the frontal and parietal regions of the brain.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a multifactorial endocrine disorder with significant genetic components. Vitamin D binding protein (VDBP) regulates vitamin D bioavailability, and its gene polymorphisms may influence PCOS susceptibility. This study investigated the correlation of VDBP SNPs rs4588 and rs7041 with the risk of developing PCOS in Iraqi women. A case-control study involving 60 PCOS patients and 30 healthy controls was conducted. Serum vitamin D and VDBP levels were measured, and VDBP SNPs (rs4588, rs7041) were genotyped by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The results showed that the levels of VDBP were significantly lower in individuals with PCOS compared to healthy individuals, with a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05). The frequencies of A and G alleles were 0.46 and 0.54 in PCOS while 0.47 and 0.53 in the control, respectively. The homozygous GG genotype and the heterozygous AG genotype were not statistically significant in PCOS patients compared to the controls. Furthermore, the frequencies of the A and C alleles for the rs7041 SNP were 0.47 and 0.53 in PCOS, respectively, while they were 0.42 and 0.58 in the control group. When compared to the control group, PCOS patients' homozygous AA and heterozygous AC genotypes showed statistically significant differences (p < 0.05). Conversely, there are no appreciable variations in the prevalence of homozygous CC genotypes between PCOS patients and controls. The findings of the study revealed that the rs7041 polymorphisms in the VDBP gene may contribute to increasing the risk of PCOS.

Resveratrol is a phytoalexin naturally produced by several plants in response to injury or pathogenic attack, such as bacterial or fungal infections. In this study, approximately 0.5 kg of fresh black grape skin cultivated in Iraq was macerated in 80% ethanol for three days. Hydrolysis was performed using 10% HCl at 60 °C, followed by filtration. The filtrate was then extracted with chloroform. The organic layer was evaporated to dryness, and the residue was subjected to further purification using silica gel G60 in an open column with a mobile phase consisting of benzene:methanol:acetic acid (20:4:1). Final purification was carried out using preparative layer chromatography (PLC). The resulting pure resveratrol (Res) was dried and stored in a cool, dark place for further analysis using UV absorption, TLC, HPLC, and FTIR spectroscopy. Five groups of albino mice (n = 5 per group) were used in the study. Four groups were rendered hyperglycemic by administration of alloxan. The animals were then treated intraperitoneally for two weeks as follows: Group 2 received Res at a dose of 5 mg/day; Group 3 received Res at 0.25 mg/day; Group 4 received glibenclamide at 600 µg/kg/day; Group 1 consisted of normal non-diabetic animals, and Group 5 represented untreated diabetic controls. The effects of resveratrol on liver function were evaluated by measuring blood glucose levels, serum malondialdehyde (MDA), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) as indicators of antioxidant activity. Additionally, in vitro kinetic assays were conducted to determine serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST/SGOT) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT/SGPT).

The hydroperoxyl radical (•OOH), a reactive oxygen species (ROS), plays a critical role in regulating physiological processes. Its involvement in cellular redox pathways and association with pathological processes make it a key molecule for understanding how excessive free radicals modulate cellular metabolism. This study investigated the effects of exogenous •OOH on the redox metabolism of mononuclear cells during phagocytosis. Rat-derived mononuclear cells were treated with different concentrations of •OOH (generated via spark-discharge non-coherent radiation), and phagocytosis was induced using latex particles. The effect of •OOH on cell membrane integrity was assessed by trypan-blue-staining, while redox metabolites were quantified by spectrofluorimetry and spectrophotometry at 1-, 30-, and 60-minutes post-phagocytosis induction. In unexposed cells, free FAD and NADH levels increased during phagocytosis, tryptophan-containing proteins remained stable, and glycation end-products (AGEs) rose significantly by 60 minutes post-phagocytosis induction. •OOH at concentrations of (3.6 ± 0.9) × 10⁻⁵ and (1.8 ± 0.45) × 10⁻⁴ mol/L did not alter redox metabolism. However, exposure to higher concentrations ((5.4 ± 1.35) × 10⁻⁴ mol/L) induced significant cytotoxic effects. At the metabolic level, this dose triggered a marked redox imbalance, evidenced by a 1.4-fold increase in FAD, altered coenzyme ratios (NADH/FAD and NADH/NAD), and a significant decrease in tryptophan-related protein fluorescence, indicating extensive macromolecular damage. All •OOH concentrations tested suppressed the formation of AGEs 60 minutes after phagocytosis induction. We propose that this inhibition is not due to a protective effect, but to fragmentation of the protein backbone or modifications in the side chains induced by radicals.

Noroviruses are the leading cause of outbreaks of nonbacterial gastroenteritis and the second most common cause of all viral intestinal infections. An effective norovirus vaccine is expected to help reduce the incidence of intestinal infections, but intensive efforts to develop such a vaccine have so far been unsuccessful. Failures in vaccine development may be due to the high heterogeneity of noroviruses and/or the hypothetical low protective efficacy of the immune response to the most common virus variants, such as GII.4 Sydney 2012. The subject of the study was potential vaccine components – virus-like particles (VLPs), formed from VP1 of norovirus GII.4 Sydney 2012 (VP1N) and VLPs from a fragment of this protein containing the shell domain and hinge region (SN). We investigated the effect of VLPs on the ability of human dendritic cells (DCs) to recruit T cells into the immune response in vitro. VLP-treated DCs were cultured with pure CD4⁺ T cells, and then T cell maturity and cytokine production were assessed. It has been shown that VP1N-treated DCs, but not SN-treated DCs, have an increased ability to shift the ratio of T cell from naïve T cells to more mature central memory T cells and stimulate IL-17 production. Intracellular cytokine assay revealed no differences in T-helper type 1 (Th1), Th17 and Th1/17 levels between mixed cultures with VP1N-treated DCs and control DCs. Apparently, the increase in IL-17 production occurs due to an increase in the activity of mature Th17, and not the maturation of new producer cells.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Heart failure (HF), a major pathology of the myocardium, is characterized by impaired cardiac function that leads to an abnormal enlargement of the heart, known as hypertrophy. In the study of the molecular mechanisms of HF pathogenesis, animal models play a crucial role. To characterize induced HF in animal models, biochemical approaches, such as quantifying the concentration of biomarkers in blood serum, are extremely important. Here we report a new immunochemical test system based on the measurement of the concentration of the B-type natriuretic peptide, protein biomarker of HF and hypertrophy, that can be utilized for characterization of HF development in rats and serve as a tool for further BNP concentration analysis.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder in which neuroinflammation plays a major role in its pathogenesis, alongside the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Necroptosis, a recently discovered regulated form of cell death mediated by the kinases RIPK1 and RIPK3, is considered one of the mechanisms contributing to neuroinflammation and neuronal death in AD. In this study, we evaluated the effect of chronic necroptosis inhibition using Necrostatin-1, a RIPK1 blocker, on the progression of neurodegeneration in aged 5xFAD mice, a model of the familial form of AD. Over a 12-week treatment period, the animals’ neurological status was assessed, followed by evaluation of long-term memory using the Morris water maze test, histological analysis of the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, and RT-PCR analysis of the expression of key genes associated with necroptosis and inflammation. Chronic administration of Nec-1 significantly slowed the progression of neurological deficits in both male and female 5xFAD mice. Inhibition of necroptosis prevented the loss of normal neurons, reduced the number of hyperchromic cells, and decreased the severity of pericellular and perivascular edema in the examined brain regions. However, in the Morris water maze test, learning and memory improved only partially in males, but not in female 5xFAD mice. This may be attributed to the increased expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 in the cortex and hippocampus of males. The results obtained indicate that inhibition of necroptosis by Necrostatin-1 represents a promising therapeutic approach for correcting neurological impairments and mitigating morphological brain alterations in Alzheimer’s disease.

Primary lactose non-persistence (LNP, hypolactasia) represents an autosomal-recessive condition, which is mainly attributed to the presence of the ancestral C-allele in the MCM6 -13910C>T (rs4988235) variant regulating the expression of the lactase (LCT) gene in individuals of European ancestry. Since the studies linking lactose intolerance C-allele and caloric accumulation, as well as gastrointestinal symptoms remain ambiguous to date, we decided to examine for a possible relation between the rs4988235 lactose intolerance allele and certain health parameters (body mass index, waist circumference, breastfeeding duration, and existing gastrointestinal tract diseases) in individuals (N = 2912) from four regions of the Volga-Ural region (VUR), i.e., Sverdlovsk Oblast, Republic of Bashkortostan, Chelaybinsk Oblast, and Udmurt Republic. In addition, we sought to clarify the genotype and allele frequencies of the MCM6 rs4988235 in the large sample from the VUR based on territorial and ethnic specificity. While examining a relation between several health conditions and the MCM6 variant, we determined a link between the rs4988235 CC genotype and prolonged breastfeeding duration (more than 1 year) in the total sample (OR = 1.63, 95%CI 2.32–5.88, p = 0.005) and in Russians (OR = 1.75, 95%CI 2.85–4.16, p = 0.024), which became more significant in individuals with a full-term period of gestation (more than 36 weeks) (OR = 1.67, 95%CI 1.13–2.45, p = 0.009) and was positively associated with higher birth weight (β = 3.11, p = 1.8x10^-3). Findings obtained point to a compensatory effect of prolonged breastfeeding on diminishing manifestation of genetically predisposed primary hypolactasia.

Bacteria of the species Streptococcus pneumoniae, dominant in the etiological structure of community-acquired pneumonia in children, are represent a serious problem in the field of human infectious pathology. Detailed molecular and genetic characteristics of eleven S. pneumoniae strains isolated from sputum samples of children with community-acquired pneumonia were obtained using whole genome sequencing and bioinformatic analysis. Based on the analysis of the nucleotide sequences of seven housekeeping genes (aroE, gdh, gki, recP, spi, xpt, ddl), it was found that S. pneumoniae strains included in the study belong to six sequence types: ST1367, ST819, ST1262, ST180, ST15069, ST66. Using SeroBA algorithm S. pneumoniae strains were assigned to five serotypes:11C, 22F, 15C, 9N, 3. Genome annotation using ResFinder and CARD databases allowed us to identify determinants of resistance to macrolides (ermB, RImA), fluoroquinolones (patA, patB, pmrA), lincosamides (RImA), aminoglycosides (aph(3')-Ia) and tetracyclines (tetM and tet32). A high frequency of detection of pathogenicity genes encoding choline-binding proteins, fibronectin-binding proteins, pneumolysin, autolysin, hyaluronidase, neuraminidase, capsule proteins, zinc metalloproteinase in the genome of S. pneumoniae strains was noted.  Phylogenetic analysis of the nucleotide sequences of the genome of Nishny Novgorod strains and strains deposited in GenBank/NCBI showed a high level of genetic variability of pneumococci circulating both in Russia and abroad.

Vitex negundo is a medicinal plant renowned for its wide spectrum of therapeutic properties, including significant anticancer activity. This study explores the inhibitory effects of V. negundo methanolic extract and essential oil on α-amylase purified from the serum of Iraqi lung cancer patients, as well as their cytotoxic effects on the A549 human lung cancer cell line. α-Amylase, an enzyme involved in carbohydrate metabolism, exhibits altered activity under cancerous conditions, making it a potential therapeutic target. The enzyme was purified through a multi-step procedure comprising ammonium sulfate precipitation, dialysis, ion-exchange chromatography, and gel filtration chromatography. This process resulted in an increase in specific activity from 0.94 to 17.0 U/mg protein. Both extracts of V. negundo were assessed for their capacity to inhibit α-amylase activity and reduce the viability of lung cancer cells. The methanolic extract demonstrated a more pronounced inhibitory effect on α-amylase (88.4% at 10 µg/mL) compared to the essential oil (77.0% at 10 µg/mL). Moreover, MTT assay results indicated concentration -dependent cytotoxicity against A549 cells, with IC₅₀ values of 68.79 µg/mL for the methanolic extract and 81.14 µg/mL for the essential oil. These findings underscore the potential of V. negundo—particularly its methanolic extract—as a promising natural anticancer agent, capable of targeting cancer-related metabolic pathways and suppressing tumor cell viability. The results warrant further investigation into the development of V. negundo-based therapeutics for lung cancer treatment.

Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) is distinguished from other lymphoid tumours due to the fact that its biology and clinical symptoms are very different from those of other lymphoid cancers. In the past ten years, there has been significant progress made in the understanding of the pathogenesis of the disease. In the field of cancer research, there have been numerous significant areas that have been investigated. The mechanisms of genetic vulnerability, the role of immunogenetic factors in the development of disease, genomic changes, epigenetic subtypes, epigenomic reprogramming of tumour cells, the control of interactions between tumour cells and their environment, and the dynamics of clonal evolution from monoclonal B cell lymphocytosis to diffuse large B-cell lymphoma are some of the topics that are investigated. As a result of the accumulation of information, new targeted drugs and management strategies have been developed, which has resulted in the opening of new therapy avenues. The purpose of this review is to examine the patterns of DNA methylation, immunological markers, and molecular and immunological characteristics that are present in patients who have chronic lymphocytic leukaemia.

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the leading causes of cancer death in the world (http://globocan.iarc.fr). In the Russian Federation, cancer of this localization ranks sixth among all malignant tumors in terms of incidence and second in mortality. Our study used a sample consisting of DNA samples isolated from the peripheral venous blood of patients with gastric cancer and healthy donors aged 21 to 88 years living in the Republic of Bashkortostan. The group of patients consisted of 156 people. As a control, a group of unrelated healthy donors without any gastrointestinal diseases was studied, consisting of 307 people of various ethnicities also living in the Republic of Bashkortostan. One of the promising areas is the study of mitochondrial dysfunction as a consequence of changes in energy metabolism, which are one of the signs of malignancy (Lee et al., 2014). In our study, we screened for known mutations of mtDNA molecules in patients with gastric cancer. The results of our studies show that all three loci we examined - a 4977 bp deletion located in the 8483-13459 mtDNA region, single nucleotide substitutions 15767 C>G in the CYB gene and 7080 T>C in the COI gene - most likely do not play a role as driver events in the occurrence of gastric cancer in individuals of Russian, Tatar and Bashkir ethnicity from the Republic of Bashkortostan.

Aging is a natural and inevitable process that worsens the quality of life and shortens its duration. In the process of aging, the cardiovascular system undergoes significant restructuring, diastolic dysfunction is observed, vascular stiffness increases and vasodilation decreases. α₂-ARs are widely distributed in the body and are involved in the regulation of heart and vascular functions. In pathological conditions, there is an increase in the expression of α₂-AR subtypes, a violation of their functions, and a decrease in the effectiveness of the associated signalling cascades. The study aimed to investigate the effect of the α₂-AR agonist clonidine hydrochloride at concentrations of 10^-9-10^-6 M on the inotropy, chronotropy and coronary flow of the old rats isolated heart. α₂-AR stimulation changes all the studied parameters of the old rats isolated heart. The force of left the ventricular myocardium contraction decreases at concentrations of 10^-9 and 10^-8 M, and increases at concentrations of 10^-7 and 10^-6 M. The α₂-AR agonist causes a decrease in heart rate in all studied concentrations. Stimulation of α₂-AR in lower concentrations (10^-9 - 10^-7 M) reduces coronary flow, and the maximum concentration of clonidine hydrochloride (10^-6 M) increases.

The study examined the possibility of using vesicular mRNA for diagnostic purposes using real-time PCR as a tool for analyzing the stage of development of changes in the body in response to prolonged alcohol intake. The study simulated the intermittent nature of prolonged alcohol consumption in Wistar rats, which reflects the pattern of alcohol consumption typical of individuals who abuse alcohol. Extracellular vesicles were isolated from the blood plasma of rats using differential ultracentrifugation. Their presence was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. Total RNA extraction, cDNA synthesis, and real-time PCR were performed using commercial reagent kits.  The study revealed elevated levels of several pro-inflammatory mRNAs in extracellular vesicles isolated from blood plasma. In the group of animals with prolonged alcoholization, the levels of Tnfα mRNA were increased, and the presence of Hmgb1 mRNA was confirmed. In the conditions of the cancellation of long-term alcoholization, on the 10th day, an increased level of pro-inflammatory mRNA Tnfα and Il1β were revealed and the content of mRNA Hmgb1 was again found. The obtained data show the diagnostic value of vesicular mRNA and open the prospect for subsequent research in this direction.

Breast cancer (BC) remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related mortality in women worldwide. Recent studies have explored the role of myokines, signaling proteins released during muscle contraction, in regulating tumor growth, metastasis, and the tumor microenvironment. This study investigates the correlation between myokines and breast cancer progression, focusing on the role of irisin and decorin. The study was conducted at two oncology centers in Baghdad, Iraq, from May to December 2022. A total of 88 Iraqi women, aged 20-70, were enrolled in the study across six groups: healthy controls (G1) and women with different treatment regimens (G2-G6). Blood samples were collected after fasting, and myokine concentrations were measured using ELISA. Additionally, histopathological examinations were performed on tissue biopsies to assess the presence of lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS). The study found significant differences in myokine concentrations across the groups. Irisin levels were highest in the metastatic group (G6), while decorin levels showed significant variations across the different patient groups. Histological analysis revealed characteristic changes of LCIS, including irregular lobular structures, hyperplasia, and inflammatory cell infiltration. This study highlights the potential role of myokines, particularly irisin and decorin, as biomarkers for breast cancer progression. Elevated irisin levels in advanced stages suggest its involvement in tumor development and metastasis.

Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is a prevalent inherited lipid disorder marked by elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) from early life, significantly increasing the risk of premature atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Recent advances in pharmacotherapy have transformed treatment possibilities, particularly for patients unresponsive to traditional therapies. This review synthesizes current evidence on emerging lipid-lowering agents, including PCSK9 monoclonal antibodies (e.g., evolocumab), small interfering RNA-based therapies (e.g., inclisiran), and angiopoietin-like protein 3 (ANGPTL3) inhibitors (e.g., evinacumab). Clinical trials demonstrate that these agents achieve substantial LDL-C reductions – often exceeding 40% – with favorable safety profiles, even in homozygous FH patients with null LDL receptor activity. Additionally, advances in genomic research have enabled more precise classification of pathogenic variants in genes such as APOB and ANGPTL3, improving diagnostic accuracy and guiding targeted therapy. The integration of these pharmacologic and genetic strategies represents a significant shift toward individualized management of FH. Further long-term and population-based studies are needed to validate these approaches and ensure equitable access across healthcare settings.

The aim is to determine the role of polymorphic loci of IL-1β, IL-10, TNF-α genes in families of patients with Helicobacter pylori-associated diseases. Materials and methods: Molecular genetic identification of H. pylori was carried out by PCR. Determination of cytokine gene polymorphisms (IL-1β (-31T/C), TNF-α (-308 G/A), IL-10 (-592C/A) and (+1082G/A) in 108 individuals – family members of individuals with chronic H. pylori-associated gastritis, was carried out by allele-specific PCR in real time. Results: H. pylori DNA was detected in 55.6% of patients' relatives, which is higher than the average prevalence in Russia (35.3%) and the Volga Federal District (33.0%). The distribution of gene polymorphisms of the studied cytokines in relatives of patients with and without H. pylori infection differed significantly. In H. pylori-infected family members, the T/T genotype and T allele of IL-1β (-31T/C), the C/C genotype of IL-10 (-592 C/A), and the G/G genotype of TNFα (-308 G/A) were significantly more frequently detected. No significant differences in IL-10 polymorphisms (+1082 G/A) were found in H. pylori positive and H. pylori negative individuals. Conclusions: IL 1β (-31T/C) T/T, IL 10 (-592 C/A) C/C, TNFα (-308 G/A) G/G gene polymorphisms increase the risk of H. pylori infection by more than 2 times. Carriers of such genotypes constitute a risk group for H. pylori-associated diseases, and in case of subclinical infection they are a source of infection and reinfection of relatives. Identification and treatment of infected family members is an important task in preventing the spread and recurrence of H. pylori infection.